Studia Kinanthropologica 2021, 22(1):21-29

Effect of attentional focus in swimming

A. Křehký*, P. Schlegel, A. Agricola
Univerzita Hradec Králové, Pedagogická fakulta, Katedra tělesné výchovy a sportu

The use of verbal instructions is a common tool to improve motor learning and performance. Current results show, that providing instructions that focus an athlete's attention externally (directed at the movement effect), rather than internally (directed at the athlete's body movements), generally result in enhanced motor skill performance. This study provides a comprehensive review of the existing literature which examined the influence of verbal attentional focusing instructions in swimming. The aim of the study was to find out what kind of instructions are suitable for motor learning and swimming performance. Analysis has shown that most of the available studies are focused mainly on performance itself, not motor learning. Nevertheless, several studies have confirmed the hypothesis that externally directed instruction appears to have a more effective effect in general - for competitive swimmers and also for non-competitive swimmers. Based on the results, it can also be concluded that instructions directed at driving forces (i.e. arm and leg movements) appear to have a more effective effect for performance, than instructions that lead to the correct body position or breathing. It is obvious that in comparison with other sports of a similar nature, in the field of swimming there is a need for further experiments focusing not only on performance but also on the whole process of motor learning.

Keywords: attentional focus; external attentional focus; internal attentional focus; swimming; motor learning

Published: March 30, 2021  Show citation

ACS AIP APA ASA Harvard Chicago Chicago Notes IEEE ISO690 MLA NLM Turabian Vancouver
Křehký A, Schlegel P, Agricola A. Effect of attentional focus in swimming. Studia Kinanthropologica. 2021;22(1):21-29.
Share...
Download citation
  • BibTeX (.bib)
  • Bookends (.ris)
  • EasyBib (.ris)
  • EndNote (.enw)
  • EndNote 8 (.xml)
  • ISI WoS (.isi)
  • Medlars (.medlars)
  • Mendeley (.ris)
  • MODS (.xml)
  • Papers (.ris)
  • RefWorks (.txt)
  • RefManager (.ris)
  • RIS (.ris)
  • MS Word (.xml)
  • Zotero (.ris)
    • Open full article

    References

    1. Abdollahipour, R., Psotta, R., & Land, W. M. (2016). The influence of attentional focus instructions and vision on jump height performance. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 87, 408-413. doi: 10.1080/02701367.2016.1224295 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    2. Alberty, M., Sidney, M., Huot-Marchand, F., Dekerle, J., Bosquet, L., Gorce, P., & Lensel, G. (2006). Reproducibility of performance in three types of training test in swimming. Int J Sports Med, 27 (8), 623-628. doi: 10.1055/s-2005-865814 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    3. Asadi, A., Abdoli, B., Farsi, A., & Saemi, E. (2015). Effect of various attentional focus instructions on novice javelin throwing skill performance. Medicina dello Sport, 68, 99-107.
    4. Brocken, J. A. E., Kal, E. C., & van der Kamp, J. (2016). Focus of attention in children's motor learning: examining the role of age and working memory. Journal of Motor Behavior, 48 (6), 527-534. doi: 10.1080/00222895.2016.1152224 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    5. Capelli, C., Pendergast, D. R., & Termin, B. (1998). Energetics of swimming at maximal speeds in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol, 78 (5), 385-393. doi: 10.1007/s004210050435 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    6. Čechovská, I. (2001). Plavecký výkon. Aquasport a triatlon, 3 (4), 31.
    7. Freudenheim, A., Madureira, F., Pasetto, S., & Corrêa, U. (2010). An External Focus of Attention Results in Greater Swimming Speed. International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching, 5, 533-542. doi: 10.1260/1747-9541.5.4.533 Go to original source...
    8. Guthrie, E.R. (1952). The psychology of learning. New York: Harper & Row.
    9. Halperin, I., Chapman, D. W., Martin, D. T., Abbiss, C. (2017). The effects of attentional focus instructions on punching velocity and impact forces among trained combat athletes. J Sports Sci, 35 (5), 500-507. doi: 10.1080/02640414.2016.1175651 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    10. Hodges, N. J., & Franks, I. M. (2002). Modelling coaching practice: the role of instruction and demonstration. J Sports Sci, 20 (10), 793-811. doi: 10.1080/026404102320675648 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    11. Ille, A., Selin, I., Do, M. C., & Thon, B. (2013). Attentional focus effects on sprint start performance as a function of skill level. Journal of Sports Sciences, 31, 1705-1712. doi: 10.1080/02640414.2013.797097 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    12. Jurák, D. (2019). Transfer silových předpokladů do kvalitativního provedení plaveckého způsobu kraul (Disertační práce, Univerzita Karlova, Praha, Česká republika). Získáno z https://is.cuni.cz/webapps/zzp/detail/165846/
    13. Jürimäe, J., Haljaste, K., Cicchella, A., Mäestu, E., Purge, P., Leppik, A., & Jürimäe, T. (2007). Analysis of Swimming Performance From Physical, Physiological, and Biomechanical Parameters in Young Swimmers. Pediatric exercise science, 19, 70-81. doi: 10.1123/pes.19.1.70 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    14. Leblanc, H., Seifert, L., Baudry, L., & Chollet, D. (2005). Arm-leg coordination in flat breaststroke: a comparative study between elite and non-elite swimmers. Int J Sports Med, 26 (9), 787-797. doi: 10.1055/s-2004-830492 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    15. Makaruk, H., Porter, J. M., & Makaruk, B. (2013). Acute effects of attentional focus on shot put performance in elite athletes. Kinesiology, 45, 55-62.
    16. Neuls F., & Viktorjeník D. (2017). Technická příprava v plavání: cvičení pro rozvoj a zdokonalení techniky plaveckých způsobů. Praha: Český svaz plaveckých sportů.
    17. Pasetto, S. C., Ried, B. U. W., Freudenheim, A. M., & Corrêa, U. C. (2011). Effects of attentional focus in the Crawl performance: Body positioning and breathing components. Brazilian Journal of Motor Behavior, 6 (1), 31-36. doi: 10.20338/bjmb.v6i1.27 Go to original source...
    18. Peřinová, R. (2018). Teorie OPTIMAL a možnosti jejího využití ve školní tělesné výchově a výuce sportovních her. In P. Valach & L. Charvát., Hry 2018: sborník příspěvků s tématikou her v programech tělovýchovných procesů (pp. 19-20). Plzeň: Západočeská univerzita v Plzni.
    19. Porter, J. M., Anton, P. M., & Wu, W. F. W. (2012). Increasing the distance of an external focus of attention enhances standing long jump performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 26, 2389-2393. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e31823f275c Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    20. Porter, J. M., Nolan, R. P., Ostrowski, E. J., & Wulf, G. (2010). Directing attention externally enhances agility performance: A qualitative and quantitative analysis of the efficacy of using verbal instructions to focus attention. Frontiers in Psychology, 1 (216), 1-7. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2010.00216 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    21. Porter, J. M., & Sims, B. (2013). Altering focus of attention influences elite athletes' sprinting performance. International Journal of Coaching Science, 7, 41-51.
    22. Porter, J. M., Wu, W. F. W., Crossley, R. M., & Knopp S. W. (2015). Adopting an external focus of attention improves sprinting performance in low-skilled sprinters. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 29, 947-953. doi: 10.1097/JSC.0000000000000229 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    23. Porter, J., Wu, W., & Partridge, J. (2010). Focus of Attention and Verbal Instructions: Strategies of Elite Track and Field Coaches and Athletes. Sport Science Review, 19, 199-211. doi: 10.2478/v10237-011-0018-7 Go to original source...
    24. Poujade, B., Hautier, Ch., & Rouard, A. (2002). Determinants of the energy cost of front-crawl swimming in children. European journal of applied physiology, 87, 1-6. doi: 10.1007/s00421-001-0564-2 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    25. Ried, B., Fugita, M., Freudenheim, A., Basso, L., & Corrêa, U. (2012). Verbal instruction: Requesting an attentional focus does not ensure compliance and better performance. Motriz: Revista de Educação Física, 18. 449-455. doi: 10.1590/S1980-65742012000300005 Go to original source...
    26. Salmoni, A. W., Schmidt, R. A., & Walter, C. B. (1984). Knowledge of results and motor learning: a review and critical reappraisal. Psychol Bull, 95 (3), 355-386. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    27. Sewell, D. F., (1996). Attention-Focusing Instructions and Training Times in Competitive Youth Swimmers. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 83 (3), 915-920. doi:10.2466/pms.1996.83.3.915 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    28. Schmidt, R. A. (1991). Motor learning & performance: From principles to practice. Human Kinetics Books.
    29. Schmidt, R. A., & Lee, T. D. (2005). Motor control and learning: A behavioral emphasis (4th ed.). Human Kinetics.
    30. Schmidt, R. A., & Lee, T. D. (2014). Motor learning and performance. From principles to application (5th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
    31. Schramm, E. et al. (1987). Sportschwimmen. Berlin: Sportverlag.
    32. Schücker, L., Hagemann, N., Strauss, B., & Völker, K. (2009). The effect of attentional focus on running economy. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27 (12), 1241-1248. doi: 10.1080/02640410903150467 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    33. Schücker, L., Heil, O., Brand, R., & Hagemann, N. (2014). Attentional Focus Strategies of Triathletes During the Ironman World Championships. Journal of Sport Behavior, 37 (3), 306-316.
    34. Stoate, I., & Wulf, G. (2011). Does the Attentional Focus Adopted by Swimmers Affect Their Performance? International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching, 6, 99-108. doi: 10.1260/1747-9541.6.1.99 Go to original source...
    35. Winkelman, N. C., Clark, K. P., & Ryan, L. J. (2017). Experience level influences the effect of attentional focus on sprint performance. Human Movement Science, 52, 84-95. doi: 10.1016/j.humov.2017.01.012 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    36. Wulf, G. (2007). Attention and motor skill learning. Human Kinetics. Go to original source...
    37. Wulf G. (2013). Attentional focus and motor learning: a review of 15 years, International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 6 (1), 77-104. doi: 10.1080/1750984X.2012.723728 Go to original source...
    38. Wulf, G., & Dufek, J. S. (2009). Increased jump height with an external focus due to enhanced lower extremity joint kinetics. Journal of Motor Behavior, 41, 401-409. doi: 10.1080/00222890903228421 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    39. Wulf, G., Dufek, J. S., Lozano, L., & Pettigrew, C. (2010). Increased jump height and reduced EMG activity with an external focus of attention. Human Movement Science, 29, 440-448. doi: 10.1016/j.humov.2009.11.008 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    40. Wulf, G., Höß, M., & Prinz, W. (1998). Instructions for Motor Learning: Differential Effects of Internal Versus External Focus of Attention, Journal of Motor Behavior, 30 (2), 169-179. doi: 10.1080/00222899809601334 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    41. Wulf G, & Lewthwaite R. (2016). Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning. Psychon Bull Rev, 23 (5), 1382-1414. doi: 10.3758/s13423-015-0999-9 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    42. Wulf, G., Wächter, S. & Wortmann, S. (2003). Attentional Focus in Motor Skill Learning: Do Females Benefit from an External Focus? Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal, 12, 37-52. doi: 10.1123/wspaj.12.1.37 Go to original source...
    43. Wulf, G., Zachry, T., Granados, C., & Dufek, J. S. (2007). Increases in jump-and-reach height through an external focus of attention. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 2, 275-284. doi: 10.1260/174795407782233182 Go to original source...
    44. Zamparo, P., Bonifazi, M., Faina, M., Milan, A., Sardella, F., Schena, F., & Capelli, C. (2005). Energy cost of swimming of elite long-distance swimmers. Eur J Appl Physiol, 94 (5-6), 697-704. doi: 10.1007/s00421-005-1337-0 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    45. Zarghami, M., Saemi, E., & Fathi, I. (2012). External focus of attention enhances discus throwing performance. Kinesiology, 44, 47-51.

    This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0), which permits use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original publication is properly cited. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.


    Return to the content